The Biopsychosocial and Spiritual Perspective on the Readiness to Quit Smoking: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
Smoking cessation is a major public health goal today as smoking has threatened the safety, health, and lives of millions of people in the global community. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the role of biopsychosocial and spiritual factors towards the readiness to quit smoking and smoking cessation. The results of the study found that smoking behaviour adversely affects not only the biological aspects but also the psychological, social, and spiritual aspects. Apart from that, this study also found that the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects also play an important role in determining the motivation of smokers to quit smoking holistically. Therefore, research and empirical evidence on the biopsychosocial and spiritual aspects are needed to help healthcare teams to identify the barriers and motivating factors to quit smoking.
Downloads
References
Abdullah, A. (2010). Themes and issues in research social problems in the first decade of the 21th century in Malaysia. Akademika, 78(3-14)
Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. (2014). Adult psychiatric morbidity survey: Survey of mental health, and wellbeing. https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/adult-psychiatric-morbidity-survey/adult-psychiatric-morbidity-survey-survey-of-mental-health-and-wellbeing-england-2014
Alvarez, A. S., Pagani, M., Meucci, P. (2012). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model in in mental health: A research critique. Am J phus med rehabilitation, 91: S173-180. http://doi.org/10.1097/PHM.0b013e31823d54be.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th Edition, text revision). American Psychiatric Association
Andersen, Z. J., Jøgensen, J. T., Grøn, R., Brauner, E. V., & Lynge, E. (2017). Active smoking and risk of breast cancer in a Danish nurse cohort study. BMC Cancer, 17, 556-567. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-017-3546-4
Babalola, E., Noel, P., & White, R. (2017). The biopsychosocial approach and global mental health: Synergies and opportunities. Indian journal of social psychiatry. 33: 291-296. http://doi.org/10.4103/ijsp.ijsp_13_17
Bailey, Z.D., Slopen, N., Albert, M., & Williams, D.R. (2015). Multidimensional religious involvement and tobacco smoking patterns over 9-10 years: A prospective study of middle-aged adults in the United States. Social science & medicine, 138, 128-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.006
Barrueco, M., Otero, M. J., Palomo L, Jiménez-Ruiz, C., Torrecilla, M., Romero, P., & Riesco, J. A. (2005). Adverse effects of pharmacological therapy for nicotine addiction in smokers following a smoking cessation program. Nicotine and Tobacco Research. , 7, 335–42. http://doi.org/10.1080/14622200500124768
Boksa, P. (2017). Smoking, psychiatric illness and the brain. Journal Psychiatry Neuro Science, 42(3), 147-149. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.170060
Britton, J., Arnott, D., Coleman, T., Cuthbertson, L., Edwards, R., Gilmore, A., Godfrey, C. (2007). Harm reduction in nicotine addiction: Helping people who can’t quit. Royal college of physicians. https://www.heartland.org/_template-assets/documents/Vaping%20Studies/1-26-2017/Harm-Reduction-in-Nicotine-Addiction.pdf
Calfee, C. S., Matthay, M. A., Kangelaris, K. N., Siew, E. D., Janz, D. R., Bernard, G. R., May, A. K., Jacob, P., Havel, C., Benowitz, N. L., & Ware, L. B. (2016). Cigarette smoke exposure and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Critical care medicine, 43(9), 1790-1797. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000001089
Cambron, C., Kosterman, R., & Hawkins, J. D. (2019). Neighborhood poverty increases risk for cigarette smoking from age 30 to 39. Ann. Behav. Med., 53(9), 858–864. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kay089
Carlson, L. E., Goodey, E., Bennett, M. H., Tanezer, P., & Koopmans, J. (2002). The addition of social support to a community-based large-group behavioral smoking cessation intervention: Improved cessation rates and gender difference. Addict Behav, 27, 547-559. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00192-7
Carpenter, M. J., Jardin. B. F., & Burris, J. L. (2013). Clinical strategies to enhance the efficacy of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation: a review of the literature. Drugs. Pub Med, 73, 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-013-0038-y
Chean, K. Y., Goh, L. G., Liew, K. W., Tan, C. C., Choi, X. L., Tan, K. C., & Ooi, S. T. (2019). Barriers to smoking cessation: a qualitative study from the perspective of primary care in Malaysia. BMJ, 9, e025491. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025491
Chesney, E., Goodwin, G., & Fazel, S. (2014). Risks of all-cause and suicide mortality in mental disorders: a meta-review. World Psychiatry, 13(2),153–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20128
Coff, C. (1990). Incorporation, Digestion and Incarnation. History.
D’Antonio. P., & Fairman, J. (2004). Organizing practice: nursing, the medical model, and two case studies in historical times. Criminal Behavior Mental Health, 21(2), 411-429. https://doi.org/10.3138/CBMH.21.2.411
Daoud, N., Hayek, S., Muhammad, A. S., Abu-Saad, K., Osman, A., Thrasher, J. F., & Leibovici, K. O. (2015). Stage of change of the readiness to quit smoking among random sample of minority Arab-male smokers in Israel. BMC public health, 15, 672-685. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1950-8
Department of Islamic Development Malaysia. (2015). Kompilasi pandangan hukum: Muzakarah jawatankuasa fatwa majlis kebangsaan bagi hal ehwal ugama Islam Malaysia. JAKIM. Selangor, Malaysia. https://www.islam.gov.my/images/ePenerbitan/KOMPILASI_MUZAKARAH_MKI_2016.pdf
Doe, J., & DeSanto, C. (2009). Smoking’s immediate effects on the body. https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/assets/factsheets/0264.pdf
Dorn, C. (2017). Implementing Smoking Cessation Into Your Social Work Practice. National Association Social Worker. https://www.napsw.org/assets/docs/Advocacy/PRA-NL-36217.SmokingCessation-PP.pdf
Drope, J., & Schluger, N. W. (2018). The Tobacco Atlas. 6 th Edition. China. https://tobaccoatlas.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/03/TobaccoAtlas_6thEdition_LoRes_Rev0318.pdf
Elkalmi, R. M., Alkoudmani, R. M., Elsayed, T. M., Ahmad, A., & Khan, M. U. (2015). Effect of Religious Beliefs on the Smoking Behaviour of University Students: Quantitative Findings From Malaysia. Journal of religion and health, 55(6), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0136-0
Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science. 196(4286): 129-136. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.847460.
Engel, G. L. (1978). The biopsychosocial model and the education of health profesionals. Annals of the new york academy of science. 310: 169-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb22070.x
England, L.J., Bunell, R.E., Pechecek, T.F., Tong, V.T., & McAfee, T.A. (2015). Nicotine and the Developing Human: A Neglected Element in the Electronic Cigarette Debate. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 49(2), 286-293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.01.015.
Eriksen, M., Mackay, J., Schluger, N., Gomeshtapeh, F. I. & Drope, J. (2015). The Tobacco Atlas (5th edition). Atlanta: American Cancer Society. https://ncdalliance.org/sites/default/files/resource_files/TA5_2015_WEB.pdf
Eslami, A. A., Norozi, E., Hajihosseini, M., Ramazani, A. A., & Miri, M. R. (2017). Social cognitive theory as a theoretical framework to predict sustained abstinence 6 months after substance use treatment. Journal of substance use, 1465-9891. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2017.1394382
Eversman, M. H. (2015). Tobacco harm reduction: An emerging health issue for social work. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addiction, 15, 341-351. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533256X.2015.1091001
Farre, A., & Rapley, T. (2017). The new old (new and old) medical model: Four decades navigating the biomedical and psychosocial understandings of health and illness. Healthcare, 5(88), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare5040088.
Figueiró, L. R., Bortolon, C. B., Benchaya, M. C., Bisch, N. K., Ferigolo, M., Barros, H. M. T., & Dantas, D. C. M. (2013). Assessment of changes in nicotine dependence, motivation, and symptoms of anxiety and depression among smokers in the initial process of smoking reduction or cessation: a short-term follow-up study. Trends psychiatric psychother, 35(3), 212-22. https://doi.org/10.1590/s2237-60892013000300008.
Fluharty, M., Taylor, A. E., Grabski, M., & Munafo, M. R. (2017). The Association of Cigarette Smoking With Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review. Nicotine Tobacco Respiratory Journal, 19(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw140.
Gamberino, W.C., & Gold, M.S. (1999). Neurobiology of Tobacco Smoking & Other Addictive Disorders. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22(2), 301-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0193-953x(05)70078-2
Garrusi, B. & Nakhaee, N. (2012). Religion and smoking: A review of recent literature. International of Journal Psychatric in Medicine, 43(3), 279-292. https://doi.org/10.2190/PM.43.3.g
Ghaferi, H., Bond, C., & Matheson, C. (2017). Does the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of addiction apply in an Islamic context? A qualitative study of Jordanian Addicts in treatment. Drug alcohol depend, 7(172), 14-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.019.
Greaves, L., & Hemsing, N. (2009). Women and tobacco control policies: Social- structural and psychosocial contributions to vulnerability to tobacco use and exposure. Drug Alcohol Depend, 104(1), S121-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.05.001
Groh, E. R., Jason, L. A., Keys C. B. (2008). Social network variables in alcoholics anonymous: A literature review. Clin Psychol Rev., 28(3), 430-450. 10.1016/j.cpr.2007.07.014
Gurillo, P., Jauhar. S., Murray, R., & MacCabe, J. (2015). Does tobacco use cause psychosis? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 2(8), 718- 72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00152-2
Haldorsen, T., Martinsen, J. I., Kjærheim, K., & Grimsrud, T. K. (2017). Adjustment for tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption by simultaneous analysis of several types of cancer. Cancer cause and control, 28(2), 155-165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-016-0847-x
Harker, K., & Cheeseman, H. (2016). The Stolen Years: The mental health and smoking action report. United Kingdom: ISBN. https://ash.org.uk/information-and-resources/reports-submissions/reports/the-stolen-years/
Hill, T. D. (2018). Religion, Spirituality, and Health: Addressing the So-What Question. The Gerontologist , 59(5), 1004-100. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnz108
Hilts, P.J. (1994). Is Nicotine Addictive? It Depends on Whose Criteria You Use. Experts say the definition of addiction is evolving. The New York Times, Retrieved from http://www.drugsense.org/tfy/addictvn.htm
Hoking, W., Borland, R., Yong, H. H., & Fong, G. (2009). The effects of smoking norms and attitudes on quitting intentions in Malaysia, Thailand and four Western nations: A cross-cultural comparison. Psychology & health, 24(1), 95-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440802385854
Honjo, K., Tsutsumi, A., Kawachi, I., & Kawakami, N. (2006). What accounts for the relationship between social class and smoking cessation? Results of a pathanalysis. Soc. Sci. Med, 62, 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.011
Hussain, M., Walker, C., & Moon, G. (2017). Smoking and religion: Untangling associations using english survey data. Journal of religion and health, 58, 2263-2276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0434-9.
Ihsan, K. (2019). Smoking as an environment health problem. International journal of human and health science, 3(3): 123-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.31344/ijhhs.v3i3.89
Jasinska, A. J., Zorick, T., Brody, A. L., & Stein, E. (2014). Dual role of nicotine in addiction and cognition: A review of neuroimaging studies in humans. Neuropharmacology, 84, 111-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.02.015
Jenkins, D. A., Bowden, J., Robinson, H. A., Sattar, N., Loss, R. J. F., Rutter, M. K. & Sperrin, M. (2018). Adiposity-mortality relationships in type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and cancer subgroups in the UK Biobank, and their modification by smoking. Diabetes care. 41: 1878-1886. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-2508
Jiloha, R. C. (2010). Biological basis of tobacco addiction: Implication for smoking- cessation treatment . Indian journal psychiatry, 52(4):, 301-307. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.74303
Jochelson, K. & Majrowski W. (2006). Clearing the Air: Debating Smokefree Policies in Psychiatric Units. London, King’s Fund
Khairi, A. F. M., Rahman, H. A., & Muthiah, S. G. (2017). Risk factors of drug abuse among Malay males Felda settlers in Jerantut, Malaysia. Journal of substance abuse & alcoholism, 5(4), 1066-1075. https://www.jscimedcentral.com/SubstanceAbuse/substanceabuse-5-1066.pdf
Kim, S. J., Chae, W., Park, W. H., Park, E. C., & Jang, S. I. (2019). The impact of smoking cessation attempts on stress levels. BMC Public Health, 19,267. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6592-9
King, D. E. (2000). Faith, spirituality and medicine: Toward the making of a healing practitioner. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Pastoral Press
Kleinfelder, J., Price, J. H., Dake, J. A., Jordan, T. R., & Price, J. A. (2013). Tobacco training in clinical social work graduate programs. Health and Social Work, 38, 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/hlt008.
Koenig, H. G. (2018). Spiritual Care for Allied Health Practice: A Person-centered Approach. New York. Elsavier
Kusnato, H., Agustian, D., & Hilmanto, D. (2018). Biopsychosocial model of illnesses in primary care: A hermeneutic literature review. Journal of family medicine and primary care, 7(3), 497-500. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_145_17.
Lawler, T. S., Stanfill, S. B., deCastro, B. R., Lisko, J. G., Duncan, B. W., Ricther, P., & Watson, C. H. (2017). Surveillance of Nicotine and pH in Cigarette and Cigar Filler. Tobacco regulatory science . 3(1): 101-116. https://doi.org/10.18001/TRS.3.2(Suppl1).11
Lee, M.Y. & Tam, C.L. (2014). Smoking and Burden of Ill Health : A Review of the Malaysian Context. International Journal of Collaborative Research on Internal Medicine & Public Health, 7(7), 190–198.
Lee, Y., Lee, K.S., & Kim, H. (2019). Predictors of abstinence form smoking : A retrospective study of male college students enrolled in a smoking cessation service. International journal of environmental research and public health, 116(3363), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183363
Leventhal, A. M., Ameringer, K. J., Osborn, E., Zvolensky, M. J. (2013). Anxiety and depressive symptoms and aAective patterns of tobacco withdrawal. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 133(2), 324-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.06.015.
Leventhal, A. M., Piper, M. E., Japuntich, S. J., Baker, T. B., & Cook, J. W. (2014) Anhedonia, depressed mood, and smoking cessation outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(1), 122. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035046
Liem, A. (2010). Pengaruh nikotin terhadap aktivitas dan fungsi otak serta hubungannya dengan gangguan psikologis pada pecandu rokok. Buletin psikologi, 18(2), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.22146/bpsi.11536
Lim, H. K., Ghazali, S. M., Kee, C. C., L, K. K., Chan, Y. Y., Teh, H. C., Yusoff, A. F. M., Kaur, G., Zain, Z. M., Mohamad, M. H. N., & Salleh, S. (2013). Epidemiology of smoking among Malaysian adult males: prevalence and associated factors. BMC Public Health, 13(8), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-8.
Marcus, W.G. (2008). The Christian view on smoking;. Retrieved from http://www.emro.who.int/tfi/EMROleads-christianview.htm.
Markle, G. E., & Troyer, R. J. (1979). Smoke gets in your eyes: Cigarette smoking as deviant behavior. Social Problems, 26(5), 611-625. https://doi.org/10.2307/800045
Masiero, M., Renzi, C., Mazzocco, K., & Pravettoni, G. (2019). Not just a pill. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 30(2), E1-E4. https://doi.org/10.1097/jan.0000000000000276.
Mathew, A.R., Yount, S. E., Kalhan, R., & Hitsman, B. (2019). Psychological Functioning in Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Preliminary Study of Relations With Smoking Status and Disease Impact. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(5), 686-690. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty102.
Mazzotta, C. P. (2016). Biomedical approaches to care and their influence on point of care nurses: A scoping review . Journal of Nursing Education & Practice, 6(8), 93-101. https://doi.org/10.5430/jnep.v6n8p93
McManus, S., Meltzer, H., & Campion, J. (2010). Cigarette smoking and mental health in England. Data from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007. National Centre for Social Research. https://natcen.ac.uk/media/21994/smoking-mental-health.pdf
Ministry of Health, British Columbia. (2017). Provincial Guidelines for Biopsychosocial Spiritual Withdrawal Management Services. https://www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/year/2017/adult-withdrawal-management-services-guidelines-final.pdf
Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2019). Sisa asap basi (SAB): Apakah risikonya? https://www.facebook.com/pkbsmhn/posts/sisa-asap-basi-sabbagi-perokok-jangan-ingat-membasuh-tangan-berkumur-atau-mencuc/2480513425357416/
Mohammadnezhad, M., Tsourtos, G., Wilson, C., Ratcliffe, J. & Ward, P. (2015). Understanding socio-cultural influences on smoking among Older Greek- Australian smokers aged 50 and over: Facilitators or Barriers? A Qualitative Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(3), 2718–2734. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302718
Morrell, H.E.R., & Cohen, L. (2006). Cigarette smoking, anxiety and depression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 28(4), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-9011-8
Muhammad Faizal, M., Ali, A.M., Amit, N., Bakry, M. M., & Taha, N. A. (2016). Suitability of a group behavioural therapy module for workplace smoking cessation programs in Malaysia: A pilot study. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 17(1), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2016.17.1.207
Mykletun, A., Stordal, E., & Dahl, A. A. (2001). Hospital anxiety and depression (HAD) scale : Factor structure, item analyses and internal consistency in a large population. British journal of psychiatry, 179 : 540-544. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.179.6.540
National Association of Social Workers. (2016). NASW Standard for Social Work Practice in Healthcare Settings. https://www.socialworkers.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=fFnsRHX-4HE%3D&portalid=0
New Scientist. (2019). Eight wonders of the human brain: The more we learn about our command centre, the more mysteries. New Scientist, 242(3235), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(19)31133-9
Niederdeppe, J., Fiore, M. C., & Baker, T. B. (2008). Smoking-cessation media campaigns and their effectiveness among socioeconomically advantaged and disadvantaged populations. Am J Public Health, 98, 916e24. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.117499.
Novak, G., Seeman, P., & Le, F. B. (2010). Exposure to nicotine produces an increase in dopamine D2(High) receptors: a possible mechanism for dopamine hypersensitivity. International Journal of Neuroscience, 120(11), 691-7. https://doi.org/10.3109/00207454.2010.513462.
Nunziata, L. & Toffolutti, V. (2019). “Thou shalt not smoke”: Religion and smoking in a natural experiment of history. SSM - Population Health, 8, 100412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100412
Page, R. L., Peltzer, J. N., Burdette, A. M., & Hill, T. D. (2018). Religiosity and health: A holistic biopsychosocial perspective. Journal of holistic nursing, 38(1), 89-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010118783502
Pawlina, M. M. C., Rondina, R. D. C., Espinosa, M. M. & Botelho, C. (2014). Nicotine dependence and levels of depression and anxiety in smokers in the process of smoking cessation. Revista de Psiquiatria Clínica, 41(4), 101–105
Pfeffer, D., Wigginton, B., Gartner, C., & Morphett, K. (2018). Smokers’ understanding of addixtion to nicotine and tobacco: A systematic review and interpretive synthesis of quantitative and qualitative research. Nicotine and tobacco research, 20(9), 1038-1049. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntx186.
Pierce, R. C., & Kumaresan, V. (2006). The mesolimbic dopamine system: The final common pathway for the reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. Boston: Boston University School of Medicine. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(2), 215–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.016
Prochaska, J. J. & Benowitz, N. L. (2016). The Past, Present, and Future of Nicotine Addiction Therapy. Annu Rev Med. 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-111314-033712
Prugger, C., Wellmann, J., Heidrich, J., Bacquer, D. D., Backer, G. D., Périer, M. C., Empana, J. P., Reiner, Z., Fras, Z., Jennings, C., Kotseva, K., Wood, D., & Keil, U. (2014). Passive smoking and smoking cessation among patients with coronary heart disease across Europe: results from the EUROASPIRE III survey. Eur Heart J., 35(9), 590-598. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht538
Rashid, A, R., Kanagasundram, S., Danaee, M., Majid, H. A., Sulaiman, A. H., Zahari, M. M. A., Ng, C. G., Francis, B., Husin, W. A. I. W., & Su, T. T. (2019). The prevalence of smoking, determinants and chance of psychological problems among smokers in an urban community housing project in Malaysia. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(1762), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101762.
Rose, J. E., Behm, F. M., & Westman. (2001). Acute effects of nicotine and mecamylamine on tobacco withdrawal symptoms, cigarette reward and ad lib smoking. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior, 68(2), 187-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00465-2.
Royal College of Physicians. (2013). Royal College of Psychiatrists. Smoking and mental health. London. https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/smoking-and-mental-health
Russell, M.A.H., Jarvis, M.J., West, R.J., & Feyerabend, C. (1985). Buccal absorption of nicotine from smokeless tobacco. Lancet, 2, 1370, 1985. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92668-6.
Saad, M., Medeiros, R. D., & Mosini, A. S. (2017). Are we ready for a true biopsychosocial-spiritual model? The many meanings of “Spiritual”. Medicines, 4(79), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4040079
Seo, Y. G., Paek, Y. J., Jo, M. W., & Choi, J. (2019). Predictors of long-term abstinence rate by income level in the Korean Smoking Cessation Programme. Addiction, 114(11), 2056-2064. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14726.
Setiawati, A. (2013). Suatu kajian molekuler ketergantungan nikotin. Jurnal farmasi sains dan komunitas, 10(2), 121-127. https://doi.org/10.24071/jpsc.0098
Shadel, W.G., Shiffman, S., Niaura, R., Nichter, M & Abrams, D.B. (2000). Current models of nicotine dependence: what is known and what is needed to advance understanding of tobacco etiology among youth. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 59(1), S9-S21. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0376-8716(99)00162-3.
Shafey, O, Eriksen, M, & Ross, H. (2009). The tobacco atlas (3rd ed.), Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society; 2009. https://www.afro.who.int/publications/tobacco-atlas-3rd-edition
Sharma, M. K., Suman, L. N., Manjula, M., Marimuthu, P., & Ahmad, M. (2011). Exploring the role of religion in smoking cessation. Delhi psychiatry journal, 14(1), 129-132.
Shweder, R., & Much, K. (1994). Are moral intuitions and self-evident truths? Criminal justice ethics. 13: 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129X.1994.9991971.
Siru, R, Hulse, G. K. K., & Tait, R. J. J. (2009). Assessing motivation to quit smoking in people with mental illness: a review. Addiction, 104(5), 719-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02545.x.
Song, C., Fu, R., Dou, K., Yang, J., Xu, H., Gao, X., Wang, H., Liu, S., Fan, X., & Yang,Y. (2019). Association between smoking and in-hospital mortality in patients with acute myocardial infarction: result from a prospective, multicenter, observational study in China. British journal medical, 9, e030252. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030252
Stanaway, J. D., Afshin, A., Gakidou, E., Lim, S. S., Abate, D., Abate, K. H., … Abd-Allah, F. (2018). Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet, 392(10159), 1923–1994. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(18)32225-6
Subramaniam, M., Shahwan, S., Fauziana, R., Satghare, P., Picco, L., Vaingankar, J. A., & Chong, S. A. (2015). Perspectives on smoking initiation and maintenance: A qualitative exploration among singapore youth. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(8), 8956–8970. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120808956.
Sulmasy, D. P. (2002). A biopsychosocial-spiritual model for the care of patients at the end of life. The gerontologist, 42(3), 24-33. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/42.suppl_3.24.
Tabei, S. Z., Zarei, N., & Joulaesi, H. (2016). The impact of spirituality on health. Shiraz e-medical journal,17(6), e39053. https://doi.org/10.17795/semj39053
Taukeni, S. G. (2019). Psychology of health: Biopsychosocial approach. IntechOpen. United Kingdom.
Taylor, G., Davies, N., Thomas, K., Rai, D., Jones, T., Windmeijer, F., Martin, R. M., Munafo, M. R., Davies, N. M., & Taylor, A. E. (2019). Prescribing prevalence, long-term eAectiveness, and mental health safety of varenicline and nicotine replacement therapy in patients with mental disorders: A prospective cohort study of electronic medical records. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 22(1), 48-57. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntz072.
Trans, C. T., Medlin, L. F., Lama, N., Taranu, B., Ng, W., Haziza, C., Picavet, P., Baker, G., & Lüdicke, F. (2019). Biological and functional changes in healthy adult smokers who are continously abstinent from smoking for one year: Protocol for a prospectice, observational, multicenter cohort study. JMIR research protocols, 8(6), e12138. https://doi.org/10.2196/12138.
Trout, S., Goldstein, A. O., Marks, L., & Moffitt, C.R. (2018). Treating tobacco patient in patients with incurable malignancies: should we even start the conversation? Journal of palliative medicine, 21(6), 746-750. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2017.0304.
Tyndall, L., Hodgson, J., Lamson, A., White, M., & Knight, S. (2014). Medical family therapy : 30 years of history, growth and research. Medical family therapy : Advanced applications. 13-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-012-9183-9
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2020). Smoking Cessation: A Report of the Surgeon General. United States. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/2020-cessation-sgr-full-report.pdf
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2011). World Drug Report 2011. Vienna. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR2011/World_Drug_Report_2011_ebook.pdf
United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA, USA. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53017/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK53017.pdf
Uniwin, N. (2013). Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the structural basis of neuromuscular transmission: insights from Torpedo postsynaptic membranes. Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics, 46(4), 283-322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033583513000061.
Vaanamen, A., Kouvonen, A., Kivimaki, M., Pentti, J., & Vahtera, J. (2008). Social support, network heterogeneity, and smoking behavior in women: the 10-town study. Am J Health Promot, 22, 246-255. https://doi.org/10.4278/0701094R1.1.
Vaughn, M. G., & Perron, B. E. (2013). Social work practice in the Addiction. Springer. New York
Waring, J.J.C., Hébert, E.T., Alexander, A.C., Kendzor, D.E., & Businelle, M.S. (2019). Evaluating the influences of social support and smoking cues on daily smoking abstinence among socioeconomically disadvantaged adults. Addictive Behaviors, 106107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106107
Wee, W. L., Hsien, C. C. M. & Nantha, Y.S. (2016). A review of smoking research in Malaysia. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 71, 29–41
West, R., & Brown, J. (2013). Theory of addiction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, Addiction Press
West, R., Evins, A.E., Benowitz, N. L., Russ., C., McRae, T., Lawrence, D., Aubin, L. S., Krishen, A., Maravic, M. C., & Anthenelli, R. M. (2018). Factors Associated With the Efficacy of Smoking Cessation Treatments and Predictors of Smoking Abstinence in EAGLES. Addicition, 113(8), 1507-1516. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14208
White, E. G. & White, J. (1898). Temperance . Battle Creek Michican: GHPC. Thrul, J
Wolff, K. C. Y., Fromont, S. C., Delucchi, K., Hall, S. T., Hall, S. T., & Prochaska, J. J. (2014). PTSD symptomatology and readiness to quit smoking among women with serious mental illness. Addictive behaviors, 39(8), 1231-1234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.03.024
World Health Organization. (1999). Tobacco Free Initiative Meeting on Tobacco and Religion, Geneva, Switzerland, May 3, 1999. Report. Geneva
World Health Organization. (2008). International workshop on Buddhism and tobacco control, May 7-9, 2002
World Health Organization. (2008). MPower: Fresh and alive. Geneva: World Health Organization;.
World Health Organization. (2010). Second-hand smoker: Assessing the burden of disease at national and local levels. Environmental Burden of Disease Series .Geneva
World Health Organization. (2013). Mental health action plan 2013-2020. Geneva
World Health Organization. (2019). WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2019: Offer help to quit tobacco use
Yong, H. H., Hamann, S. L., Borland, R., Fong, G. T., & Omar, M. (2009). Adult smokers’ perception of the role of religion and religious leadership on smoking and association with quitting: A comparison between Thai Buddhists and Malaysian Muslims. Soc. Sci. Med, 69(7), 1025-1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.042
Yun, E. H., Kang, Y. H., Lim, M. K., Oh, J.-K., & Son, J. M. (2010). The role of social support and social networks in smoking behavior among middle and older aged people in rural areas of South Korea: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 10, 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-78
